By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is handsaws. This is one of the tool groups I seem to collect. They have a fascination for me in a way other hand tools don’t. I sometimes get a glazed look in my eyes and think if I can find that one special saw for my woodworking, in fact my life would be that much better, that much easier. I tend to snap out of it when remember a picture of a woodworker in Indonesia making beautiful furniture with one handsaw, one bit & brace, literally a handful of carving tools and using his stool as his workbench, his leg as his vise. His entire shop is wherever he sits down. Very humbling.

Here is a limited list, but it covers the basics handsaws. For simplicity’s sake I’ll group them into four categories; solid body saws, open body saws, Japanese saws, and pruning saws.

Solid body saws
When most people think of a handsaw this is what they mean. At an exhibit at a local museum there was a small bronze handsaw dated at about 4000 BC. So the basic design has not changed for at least 6000 years. All traditional saws have teeth sharpened only on one face, which is the standard. The influence of Japanese saws over the last ten years has added the three-sided tooth to these saws and also created hybrids. For the purposes of this article I’ll deal with standard tooth pattern on all solid body saws and discuss the three-sided tooth with the Japanese saws.

Cross cut saw. I’m sure 80% of the homes and garages in North America and Europe have one of these saws. Basic design is of a fairly thin, stiff, heat-treated, spring steel body and either a wooden or plastic handle. Lengths rage from 20″ to about 30″, the most common being 26″. The tooth set and number per inch are the important part of the design. Saws for crosscutting or cutting against the grain have teeth set in a wide alternating bevel. This creates shearing action to slice through the wood fibers leaving a kerf wider than the saw body so there is no binding. The number of teeth per inch ranges from 8 to 12. These saws are normally used for quick, rougher cutting where tear out is not a concern. Cuts on the push stroke.

Rip cut saw. These saws are identical in shape to the crosscut saw except for the tooth design and number of teeth. They are designed to cut along or with the wood grain. The teeth are set slightly to the sides to prevent binding and although they have some alternating pattern they are more of a raking tooth to scoop away the wood fibers rather than cut them. Lengths are the same as cross cut saws, from 20″ to about 30″, the most common being 26″. The number of teeth per inch is usually 5-1/2 to 7. A properly sharpened & set saw can rip a board lengthwise very fast, although practice is required to maintain a straight line. Cuts on the push stroke.

Toolbox saw. These are just shorter crosscut saws, designed to fit inside of a standard toolbox. Teeth per inch range from 8 to 12 and the length is usually 15″. The handle is often designed with one edge at 90 and another at 45 degrees to the back of the blade so you can use it as a square. Cuts on the push stroke.

Back/Mitre/Dovetail/Tenon/Gentleman’s saw. These saws all have the same basic design and differ only in size and number of teeth. They all have a very stiff body with a reinforced top edge or back usually made from steel or brass.

The stiff body and backs prevent the saw from flexing thus insuring you cut in a straight line. The tooth design is for cross cutting but they can be used for short rip cuts in the case of dovetails. The teeth are smaller in size, with less set and the number per inch are slightly higher than cross cut saws in order to give cleaner, smoother cuts. Tooth numbers range from 8 to 17 teeth per inch. Because of the reinforced back they all have a limited depth of cut ranging from 1-1/2″ in the case of a gentleman’s saw up to 6″ for a large mitre saw.

These saws normally have a full size handle except for the gentleman’s saw and the smaller dovetail saws, which can have a turned style handle. Normal saw lengths are 6″ – 10″ for Gentleman’s saw, 8″ – 12″ for Dovetail/Tenon saw, 12″ – 18″ for a back saw and 18″ – 30″ for a Mitre saw. Cuts on the push stroke.

Keyhole/Compass saw. These saws usually have a pistol style handle in wood, plastic or metal. The blades are narrow going from a maximum of 1-1/2″ at the handle down to a point with a blade length of about 12″. They have a crosscut tooth pattern with usually 10 or 12 teeth per inch. They are meant for cutting curves or starting a cut from the middle of a board or sheet, from a drilled hole. Because the blades are thin and narrow they can be easily bent, so care must be taken while cutting hard or thick material. Some saws have replaceable blades and some even have metal cutting blades available. Cuts on the push stroke.

Drywall saw. Drywall saws have turned wood or plastic handle and a very thick, stiff blade. They are pointed like the keyhole saws for puncturing drywall or wallboard but have a very coarse tooth design, with only 4 to 6 teeth per inch and normally no set to the teeth. Cuts on the push stroke.

Flooring saw. This saw looks like a tool box saw but has the end of the blade cut in a radius with teeth. This allows you to start a cut in the middle of a sheet or as the name says in the middle of the floor if you need to replace a board. The rounded nose is used to start the cut and once through you turn the saw around and continue as a normal saw. They are usually about 15″ long and have 12 to 15 teeth per inch on both the flat and radius. Cuts on the push stroke.

Open body saws
These are saws, which have a wooden or metal frame with a thin, flexible blade stretched and tensioned within the frame. They range in size from a jeweler’s fret saw up to a large framed saw for bucking up logs.

Jeweler’s/Fret saw. These saws have small metal frames with very thin blades and are meant for cutting intricate curves and shapes in wood or metal. The frame itself often has one fixed arm and one adjustable arm with a throat depth normally of about 2″ and a blade length ranging from 1″ to 5″. Some specialized versions have throat depths of up to 18″. Blades are held in place by a clamping system. This allows you to shorten the amount of blade being used lessening the chance of it breaking. It also means you can continue to use broken blades. The number of teeth per inch is usually very high for metal cutting, from 20 up to 46. For wood it would normally range from 7 to 33 teeth per inch. Cuts on the pull stroke.

Hacksaw. Hacksaws usually have tubular steel frames, which hold an 8″, 10″ or 12″ blade. Blades are held front and back by a pin in the frame and have a screw method to add tension to the blade. Designed to cut metal the blades are stiffer and harder than wood cutting blades. Common number of teeth per inch range from 18 to 32. Cuts on the push stroke. Specialized blades are available which have tungsten carbide cutting surfaces in a flat blade or rod stile for cutting tile, hardened steel, cast iron or masonry. Cuts on both the push and pull stroke.

Coping saw. These are similar to the fret saws but are slightly larger. They can be in wood or metal. Wooden coping saws use a twisted cord to tension the blade much like a turnicate, which is usually longer (12″) than a steel coping saw blade (6-3/8″). The steel coping saw has a “C” shape with a small turned wood or plastic handle which when turned tightens the blade. Coping saws are meant for cutting intricate curves and shapes in wood. Often used in fitting baseboards and moldings. Throat depth ranges from 4″ to 10″. Blades normally range from 7 to 20 teeth per inch. Blades have a pin in either end, which fit into groves. Normally cuts on the pull. It can cut on push as well, but it is not recommended as you have less control and it’s easier to bend or break the blade.

Bow/Buck/Swede saw. These saws have either a wooden or tubular steel frame. The wooden framed ones are like large coping saws and tighten the blade with a twisted cord. The steel framed saws use a clamping lever to tension the blade. These saws have a throat depth ranging from 8″ to 14″ and blade lengths from 24″ to 36″. They were designed for cutting logs into lengths or cross cutting lumber. The larger versions of these saws were often used with two people. Blades can have a standard crosscut tooth pattern with 4 teeth per inch or a very aggressive rapid action blade with 2-3 teeth per inch. The standard blade cuts on the push, rapid action blades cut on both push and pull. Most of these saws are now sold with the more aggressive rapid action blade.

Mitre saw. This style of mitre saw is like a giant hacksaw but for wood, and they are usually part of a mitre box. They use a steel frame with about a 1-1/2″ to 2″ wide, wood cutting blade tensioned within it. Like their solid body counter parts they have small, finely set teeth with about 15 per inch. The blade is fairly stiff but there is some flex especially where the blades join the frame. Because of this you need to cut slower with less pressure so you don’t flex the blade, which will of coarse change the angle of cut. This can be very aggravating when making miters for picture frames, etc. Cuts on the push stroke.

Japanese saws have much longer teeth and they are sharpened on three sides as opposed to traditional saws, which are sharpened only on one. They use much thinner blades and cut on the pull stroke. Because of the teeth, these saws cut incredibly fast and smooth. However, because of the thinness of the blade (as thin as 0.011″.) they cannot be pushed hard and you must let the saw do the work, otherwise they will split & tear. Like the traditional solid body saws they have patterns for specific purposes; crosscutting, ripping, plywood, flooring, dovetail/back and flexible flush cut. Often these saws are designed for two-handed use, which tends to slow the process but adds to the accuracy and control of the cut. Speed is compensated by the faster cutting action of the tooth design.

The dovetail saws have steel or brass reinforced backs at least ¾ the blade length and shorter and finer teeth. They range from 15″ to 23″ long and have from 17 to 25 teeth per inch. The flush cut saws have no back and are extremely flexible. The teeth are set only on one side, which means the blade can be laid flat on the wood surface as it trims flush any protruding wood.

The crosscut, ripping and plywood saws all have short reinforcing backs to stiffen the blade close to the handle. These saws are usually 21″ to 26″ long with a tooth count of 9 teeth per inch for ripping up to 17 teeth per inch for crosscutting. The plywood saw has 17 teeth per inch as well but the blade thickness is twice that of the other saws but at 0.040″ but still significantly less than a standard saw.

The flooring saws have a short (4″) double radius blade, which has 9 teeth per inch for ripping on one side and 16 teeth per inch for cross cutting on the other. An added benefit of this saw is the narrow shaft provides some flexibility so this saw is often used in cramped or curved quarters like boat building.

Pruning Saws have traditionally had either a “D” handle or pistol grip handle and have either a straight or curved blade. Because they are usually cutting green wood, which is softer, they have a very aggressive tooth angle for quick cutting. “D” handle saws can have a straight or curved blade and are usually double sided with coarse teeth (6 teeth per inch) on one side and cleaner cutting teeth on the other (8 teeth per inch). They are usually about 18″ long. The pistol handle saws are one sided and can be fixed or folding and range from 18″ down to 10″. Like standard wood saws, pruning saws have also been influenced by the Japanese tooth design. Now you can get the different handle styles with the three-sided tooth pattern, which tend to cut cleaner and with less strain. This is an added bonus while up on a ladder.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is hand planes. Everyone is familiar with a standard block or bench plane, but most people new to woodworking don’t realize that hand planes once did all the work routers and shapers do today. They can be tiny like those used for violin making and incredibly intricate like the plough planes from the 1800’s with their rosewood & brass parts and mother of pearl & ivory inlays. I have found that the sound and feel of a properly sharpened and tuned hand plane is one of those things, which make woodworking so satisfying.

Like most hand tools, hand planes have evolved into many different variations. They include; jack, fore, jointer, smooth, block, low angle block, rabbet/rebate, edge trimming, bull nose, plough/combination, circular, router, palm, instrument, Japanese, spoke shave, scrapers. For ease of describing I’ve split them into four groups; standard hand planes, specialty planes, Japanese planes and scrapers.

Standard Hand Planes
These are the most common planes. Bench planes range in size from about 9″ for a smoothing plane up 26″ for jointer planes and block planes are usually 6″ or 7″ long. All of these planes can come with steel or wooden bodies, and some of the bench planes have corrugated or grooved base versions. These corrugated bases are traditionally intended for use on resinous woods like pine to reduce base contact and therefore sticking.

Standard block plane. These small, light planes are intended for one-handed use. They have a slightly lower blade angle than the bench planes so they can be used on end grain, but care must still be taken so you don’t chatter. Best to use an angled shearing cut on end grain. They are ideal for general-purpose work such and are best for chamfering because of the high degree of control. However, if you are straightening a board, the short base length will follow any fluctuation. These planes can also come in versions, which have an adjustable mouth opening for coarse or fine work.

Low angle block plane. These planes have the same basic design as a standard block but with a blade angle of 12 to 14 degrees. This makes them perfect for end grain, composite materials and laminates. Care must be taken when working on the flat of the board with these planes because the low angle will catch and lift the wood fibers instead of shear them off.

Smoothing plane. These are the generally the shortest of the two handled planes. Standard length is 9″ to 10″ (225 – 250mm) long with a blade width of 1-3/4″ to 2″ (45 – 50mm). As the name implies, they are intended for general smoothing work. When jointing or flattening a board, you would start with this plane. The short bed lets you quickly remove high spots with rapid short strokes, but you cannot use them to joint because they are short enough to follow the contours of the board. Plane is still light and short enough to use with one hand when necessary.

Jack or Fore plane. These are the next step up in planes and are usually 14″ or 15″ (355 – 380mm) long with blades 2″ to 2-3/8″ (50 – 60mm) wide. Jack planes are intended for trimming long boards to dimension or as the second step in jointing a board. The length is long enough to bridge shallow areas and allows you to start leveling a board. Because of their length and weight they are best used with two hands to insure control and a smooth stroke.

Jointer or Trying plane. These are the longest of the hand planes and normally have lengths from 18″ to 22″ (455 – 560mm), although I have seen antique jointer planes, which were 26″ to 30″ (660 – 762) long. These were often two person planes with the jointer controlling the plane and the assistant using a rope to pull the plane along. Blade widths are the same as a Jack plane at 2″ to 2-3/8″ (50 – 60mm). Because of the long bed length they ride over any depressions helping to flatten the board and not follow the contours. These planes are best used with two hands to maintain control and push the blade through the material.

Quick Bench Plane Tip

Specialty Hand Planes

Instrument maker planes. These tiny planes are meant for shaping and sizing musical instruments. Usually made out of brass they range in size from about 1″ to 2″ (25 – 50mm) long, with blades from 1/4″ to ¾” (6 – 20mm). Because they very small the amount of control is tremendous providing the precision needed in creating fine instruments.

Circular or radius planes. Usually about 8″ to 9″ (200 – 225mm) long with a 1-3/4″ (45mm) blade. These planes have a flexible steel base attached to a rigid cast body. You can adjust the radius to match the curve of your material whether it is concave or convex. One thing to remember with these planes is to always go “downhill”. This way you are never pushing against the grain.

Bull nose, rebate or rabbet plane. These planes range in size from 4″ to 13″ (100 – 330mm) long with blades 1″ to 2-1/8″ (25 – 54mm) wide. The blades on these planes will extend to at least one side, often both sides of the plane. On a standard plane the blade is about ¼” (6mm) within the side of the body. Having the blade extend to the outside edge means you can plane into corners, so you can create rabbets or grooves and clean out rough dados. The bull nose version of these planes has the blade right at the front of the plane so you can work in a blind or stopped grove or rabbet.

Router plane. Unlike other planes these are held across the wide part with both hands and normally drawn towards you as you work. The “L” shaped cutter suspended in the middle of the base is excellent for cutting or cleaning a groove or dado with the grain. However they are not for use across the grain. Cutters are either ¼” (6mm) or ½” (12mm).

Combination or plough plane. These are the planes with all the buttons and whistles to do it all. The antique ones are wooden works of art and are usually priced as such. Older versions like the Stanley 45 are getting rare, are made of steel with wooden handles and prices are high even at flea markets. Modern versions have metal bodies and composite handles. They work just as good but are lacking the character of the all wood or wood/metal planes. These planes have a straight blades ranging from 1/8″ (3mm) up to 1-3/4″ (45mm), but also beading, reeding, fluting, tongue and groove and even sash cutters. Often a separate cutter is set into the plane nose, which slices the grain before the main plane blade contacts the wood. They normally come with a guide fence, which helps to keep your planing at 90 degrees, or you can add a wooden block to extend it or angle it and use the plane to chamfer at which ever angle you need. For best control use both hands.

Edge plane. These planes have a body cast with a side 90 degrees to the cutter base. This ensures that the board edge you are planing will be 90 degrees to the board face. The blade is usually set at an angle to the face so you creating more of a slice cut which is easier to push through and gives a cleaner result. These planes are very hard to find, below is a beautifully crafted version by Veritas.

Molding planes. These planes are rarely seen these days and the closest modern version would be the combination plane. However, the combination planes do not have the ogee, classic and other complicated shaped cutters that the molding planes had. They were used to create crown molding, baseboards, chair rails, furniture trim, etc. Routers and shapers have eliminated the need or, because of the labor involved in using them, even desire for these planes.

Spoke shaves. Spoke shaves. These modified planes have the handles to the sides and a shortened blade in the middle. Like the name implies these were originally designed for truing and shaving the spokes of carriage or wagon wheels. The small base of the plane can be flat, convex or concave. Although not to many of us will be making wheels, these planes, with their small base area, are still great for shaping curved work and getting into tight places. The Record spoke shaves below show the flat and convex base and the Veritas spoke shave shows the concave base.

Japanese Planes

Japanese planes cut on the pull stroke instead of the push and are still made of wood. They have the same basic bench sizes for smoothing, jointing, etc. but do not delve into the many specialized variations that western makers did. Japanese furniture tended to have less decorative edging and the woodworkers tended to rely more on chisels and saws for their detail work. Chamfer and some curved planes are available. I am a big fan of Japanese saws with their pull stroke, but I find their planes hard to use. I know in principle they would provide increased control but I can’t seem to get used to them. I’m sure it’s a matter of practice and technique.

Quick Plane Blade Tip

Scrapers
Scrapers act like miniature planes. There are three types: with bodies, with handles and no handle or body.

Scrapers with a body are often used in the place of small molding planes. The blades are ground to a shape and the wood is scraped until the entire profile is removed from the material. A straight blade could be used for creating a shallow dado for inlays. Care must be taken in using these in cross grain situations as tearing is common. Scoring with a razor knife helps. Cuts on the push and pull. Like many specialized traditional tools these are hard to find. Below is very nice Veritas molding scraper.

Scrapers with handles are normally used for surface preparation or finish removal. They have the scraping blade set at 70 to 90 degrees to the handle and the blades are normally sharpened to a fine, clean edge. The blades can be straight, curved, pointed, or even ground to match a particular profile. Cuts on the pull.

Traditional European scrapers are a rectangular piece of steel, normally with straight sides, some with convex & concave faces and some in a gooseneck shape for curved surfaces. These scrapers are held in both hands with the thumbs in the center causing a slight bowing of the steel outward. This creates the proper angle for the burr on the edge of the blade. Cuts on the push.

EUROPEAN SCRAPER EDGE

1. Edges are filed 90 degress to face.
2. Using a burnisher, the 90 degree edges are piened over creating a burr.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is clamps, or as the British say, cramps. Never a truer woodworking word was spoken than you can never have enough clamps, although I’m not sure the same could be said for cramps. We use them in every project, making jigs, used as jigs, basically for everything and you will find your are always one short. For ease of description, I’m going to group them into four categories: bar clamps, hand clamps, mitre/picture clamps and specialty clamps. Clamps have one basic function, which is to temporarily hold one or more pieces of material together. However, I’ve seen clamps being used for jobs, which they were not designed for and doing them well. This will not cover every clamp, there are just too many versions, and every year there are new clamps coming on the market, plus there are those homemade ones, which work perfectly but unfortunately no one will ever see.

Bar Clamps
Within this category I’m grouping the standard bar clamps, along with pipe, and quick action clamps.

Standard bar clamps can come in lengths from 4″ to as long as 96″ and with jaw lengths from 3″ to 12″. The basic design is a bar with one fixed and one sliding jaw. The jaws themselves are almost always a cast iron with a screw adjustment for tightening. Handles can be a simple wood grip, a rubberized one, a steel toggle, wing nut or even a crank style handle. An older, but lesser known design used a wooden cam lever for clamping. Bars can be extruded aluminum or various qualities of steel. Sizes can range from 3/16″ x ½” to ½” x 1-1/2″ and there are metal working bar clamps I’ve seen which are ¾” x 1-1/2″. Although the aluminum clamps do not have the same clamping strength, they are light and easier to handle, especially in the longer lengths. They often have stops cut into the bar to ensure the sliding jaw stays in position. Many steel bars have serrated edges for better gripping and less slippage of the moveable jaw. The heavy-duty steel bars can also be designed like an “I” beam for added strength and reduced flexing.

Pipe clamps work in the same manner as bar clamps but use a standard black pipe with a threaded end instead of a bar. The fixed end is threaded on the end of the pipe and the sliding end uses a series of steel rings which grip by biting into the pipe. Most jaw depths on pipe clamps are shallow, about 1-3/4″, but deep throat designs are available which have a throat of about 7″. The most common pipe size is ¾”, but there are also clamps for ½” pipe. Lengths are up to you, just keep in mind that the pipes flex easier the longer they are.

Quick action clamps tend to be lighter duty but are great for single-handed use. The sliding jaw is pistol grip shaped which moves forward as you squeeze the handle and a pressure release trigger. It is amazing how useful these clamps are. They do not take the place of bar clamps, but help to make clamping easier especially when working alone. I use them constantly to get large and small projects held in place and then add the heavier clamps afterwards.

Quick Tips – Buying Clamps.

It’s very hard to judge the quality of cast iron, which has been painted. For heavy-duty use you need to rely on brand and your own observations. If the brand is unknown to you, look at the edges of the casting to see if they were ground smooth before painting. If the casting was in two halves, see how well the sides match up. Check to see how easy the screw action works and if the sliding jaw slips when pressure is added. There is nothing wrong with buying a cheaper clamp if it suits the purpose. Just don’t expect it to act and stand up like a heavy-duty one. I have clamps from all price ranges and quality. They all do the job they were

Hand Clamps
In this section I’ve put “C” clamps, hand screws and spring clamps.

“C” clamps are used in both metalworking and woodworking and come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Metalworking “C” clamps usually have a metal sleeve cover over the screw threads to protect them from spark damage. Sizes range from 1″ jaw opening to over 18″ and a jaw depth from 1″ to 8-1/2″. There are also some deep-throated varieties, which have a jaw depth of 12″ or more. As with all clamps there is a large range of quality. Many of the cheaper clamps have a light duty casting, so care must be taken not to over tighten them or they will snap. Those clamps marked as forged are stronger than cast. Prices reflect the difference in quality. As with bar clamps, you can get away with cheap “C” clamps as long as you don’t over stress them.

Hand screws are a very old form of clamp. They consist of two blocks of wood held together by two threaded rods. Originally the rods were wooden as well. The central rod acted as a pivot and initial sizing, then the outer rod was used to tighten the clamp. Normally the sizes range from 2″ to 17″ jaw opening with a jaw depth of 2″ to 12″. I’ve seen antique versions used in boat construction, which were over three feet long and had a depth of throat of almost 24″, and I’m sure there are even larger ones out there. These clamps allow for very even clamping pressure over the jaw length, plus they can be adjusted to match odd angled material. These can be expensive clamps but kits are available with everything but the wooden jaws, so you can keep costs down by making your own. This also allows you to increase the jaw length by about ¼ to 1/3, any more and they loose too much strength.

Spring clamps are very handy in any shop. They act like giant alligator clips and range in size from a micro version with ½” jaw opening up to 4″. They can be made of steel or high-density plastic and have straight or pivoting jaws. Some of the newer versions have adjustable clamping pressure and even a second spring, which allows you to use it as an edge clamp. These clamps are reasonably priced often in packs of various sizes and it pays to have a number. I have twenty of various sizes and there have been gluing operations where I have used all of them. I’ve even used them to hold a heavy bar clamps in place until I could align and tighten them.

Mitre/Picture Clamps
There are many clamps on the market for making mitre joints and pictures. Some are designed to hold a single corner in place while it’s glued and pinned and others are meant for clamping the entire frame all at once.

Those clamps designed for one corner have one main prerequisite, and that is to be a perfect 90 degrees. There are some cheaper, light duty clamps, which are adjustable and clamp 90 to 180 degrees, but they can be very frustrating. If you intend on making anything other than a four-corner 90degree frame they may be of use. If you mainly want a standard four-corner frame get a good 90degree clamp. Some are a heavy cast and are designed for shop use and others are a lighter cast but are still good for home use plus they are more portable. The last clamps in this group are the spring steel “C” clamps. These clamps are 1/8″ to 3/16″ steel rods formed in a “C” with sharpened ends. Using a pair of pliers like applicators you spread the jaw and place them over the joint, then release. The spring steel holds the joint in place. The clamps have been used in Europe for decades and still have a place in the shop. The only draw back is that they can leave a small dent in the work material and the kits tend to be expensive.

To clamp the entire picture all at once there are two stiles of clamp. Band clamps and rigid frame clamps. Band clamps have a band of steel or reinforced fabric which when tightened pulls evenly around the material. These clamps can also be used on box, carcass, chair, etc, construction. If over tightened even slightly, these clamps can rack the material and two opposite corners will often pop up. This pop up can also happen with the rigid clamps. These clamps use threaded rods or extruded aluminum to provide the clamping pressure. With the threaded rods they have brass or steel couplers/nuts, which tighten the clamp. I’ve had the best luck with the aluminum design. With these clamps instead of tightening four nuts you only tighten one in the center, which means more even pressure. To prevent the pop up of the corners with these clamps I often weight down all four corners.
Specialty Clamps
There are clamps designed for specific purposes like edge gluing, face frame cabinets, laminating and hold fasts.

Edge clamps, like their name states, are used for attaching an edge to another surface such as a table or panel. They are used more and more these days as so much is made from laminates and melamine. They grip the flat surface and then a second jaw push outward holding the edging into the main body. These clamps can be economical at about $10.00 up to elaborate high quality units at $80.00. Cabinet clamps are similar to edging clamps in that they apply pressure in two directions. The difference is that these are designed specifically for applying face frames to cabinets, which tend to be wider than the body material. The jaws must compensate for this.

When gluing up boards to create a broad flat surface, the boards can buckle when clamping pressure is added to the sides. A four-way clamp prevents this by clamping the edges and the flat surface at the same time. The boards slip into the clamp like a sandwich. When the clamp is tightened it squashes the boards flat while adding pressure to the edges.

Hold fasts are one of the oldest forms of clamps and also the simplest. It is designed to hold material “fast” to the workbench so you can cut, plane, chisel, or sand it without its’ moving. Usually cast iron, these clamps have a swan like neck attached to a steel rod. Just drill a hole in your bench slightly larger than the rod diameter, slide the rod in until the pad touches the material, then tap if with a mallet and the material is secure. There is now a modern version made from high-density plastic designed to attach to portable folding benches like the Black & Decker Workmates. These use a cam lock to add pressure.

Toggle clamps are similar to hold fasts but use a mechanical cam leverage to provide amazing clamping pressure in very small clamps. They can clamp downward like a hold fast or in-line. These clamps are usually used in jigs, as stops or holding material while it is milled or worked on. They are not usually used in the gluing process, except in more production, oriented jigs. I use one attached to a mitre gauge for making style & rail cuts at the router table.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is drill bits. There are a number of different types of drill bits and like a lot of tools; this is not a modern development. There have always been many different types of bits and “new” ones are often just slightly modified versions of an older style to the point where there seems to be a bit for every possible purpose. I’ve broken them down into three main groups, metal drill bits, glass, tile & masonry and woodworking. I’ll try and cover as many different kinds of bits as possible, but there may be one or two which slip through.

Metal Drill Bits
When most people think of drill bits, this is what they think of. These bits are all designed to drill into ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The differences come in the type of material they are made out of, the lengths, tip angle and the method of sizing.

The most common bit material is high-speed steel. There are still the odd cheap carbon steel bits out there but the price difference is not enough buy them over the better HSS bits. These days there are also tungsten carbide, titanium and cobalt bits, all designed for lasting longer and drilling harder material. They are all more expensive than HSS bits but will last considerably longer. Tungsten carbide will last approximately 3 times longer, titanium will last approximately 6 times longer and cobalt is hard enough to drill stainless steel and should last 10 times longer than HSS bits. Buy the type of bit according to how much you expect to use them. For the average home shop the HSS bits are fine.

There are five common lengths associated with metal cutting drill bits; stubby, jobber, two lengths of aircraft bits and extended bits. Stubby bits as their name implies are shorter the standard jobber bits and are intended for harder use situations because there is a much less chance of them breaking. In comparison with a ¼” jobber bit which is usually about 4″ long a stubby bit is only 2-1/2″ long. Aircraft bits come in 6″ and 12″ lengths and extended or “long boy” bits are usually 18″ long.

Up until recently most drill bits had tip angles of approximately 118 degrees. More common now is 135 degrees with a split point. They are shown to cut better and with less skating of the point on the metal surface.

In sizing a bit most people just think of imperial (fractional) and metric, but there are also numbered (wire gauge) and letter size bits. Fractional bits commonly range from 1/16″ up to 3″ and I’m sure there are even larger sizes out there for massive industrial operations. Metric sizes normally range from 1mm to 13mm, again with larger bits used in industry. The letter and number bits are both on the small size. The number bits are equivalent to actual wire gauge sizes and range from 1 to 80 with 80 being the smallest and equal to about 0.0135″ or 0.343mm. These bits gave a great deal of precise sizes under ¼”, however, between ¼” and ½” sizes were only as accurate as 1/64″. This is where numbered bits came in. They range from 15/64″ to 27/64″ and fill in the gaps. If you look at the decimal equivalents of fractional, number and letter bits you’ll see a fairly regular and smooth sequence.

One last word on drill bit shanks. Shanks can be the same diameter as the bit itself, stepped down to 3/8″ or ½” from larger sizes or tapered to fit directly into a drill press shaft. The majority of home use hand drills have a 3/8″ chuck, so stepped down bits would be needed. For drill press’s which have ½” or 5/8″ chucks it would not be necessary, and for larger metal cutting drill bits they should be set into the taper of the drill press shaft instead of using a chuck at all.

Glass, Tile & Masonry Drill Bits
Glass bits look like small spears. They have a steel shaft with a carbide spear point brazed into it. These bits do not look like they would cut, glass or tile but they do and they do a good job of not chipping or breaking the material. Sizes are limited though, normally from 1/8″ to ½”. For larger sizes I’ve seen a carbide or diamond hole saw used after a ¼” pilot hole was drilled.

Masonry bits like glass bits have a steel shaft with a tungsten carbide tip brazed on. The tips are much thicker and made of impact resistant carbide and the flutes and shafts are stronger to withstand the constant percussion. The shafts themselves can be round, hexagon for better gripping in a standard chuck or a specialized shank specifically for certain types of chucking systems. Standard chucks are not designed to withstand the repeated impacts and still maintain a grip on the drill bit shafts. Some of these systems are SDS, Hilti, Spline and Magic. These shanks all use a series of grooves and ridges to increase the impact transfer and reduce slippage especially as the bits get larger than ½”. All have a locking mechanism to ensure the bit remains in the chuck.

Woodworking Drill Bits

Spoon bits as the name implies are like large elongated spoons. They are difficult to get started, as they tend to skate around on the surface. They need to be very sharp to cut well and even then they cut slowly. They were traditionally used in chair making because they can be drill close to the opposing surface and do not have a center point preceding them. I don’ t believe they are manufactured any longer so you’ll have to search the flea markets or make your own if you want one.

Spade bits are flat sided bits ranging in size from ¼” to 1-1/2″. They have a long central point to help place and start them and the better versions have spurs at the edge of their diameter to cut cleaner holes. They are economical, easily re-sharpened and cut quickly. Best to use a slow speed when using them as they can burn, especially in hardwoods.

Expandable bits seem to be a cross between spade bits and self feed bits. They have a central screw point to help pull them though the wood but with a flat cutter and single spur. The cutter is set on a track so it can slide outward and then be tightened down. They often come in two sizes with the smaller expanding from about 5/8″ to 1-3/4″ and the larger from 7/8″ to 3″. These are good bits if you only need large holes the odd time, but they must be kept sharp in order to work properly.

Forstner, saw tooth and self-feed bits are all very similar. They all have a short fluted head with a central point, two horizontal cutters and a vertical cutting ring. The differences between them are Forstner bits have a solid ring, which slices the outer edge to get a clean hole. Saw tooth have a serrated outer edge and self-feed bits have a central feed screw instead of a point to help pull the bit through the material. They all cut quickly and leave clean flat-bottomed holes. For those drilling close to the opposing surface, the Forstner and saw tooth are better as the central point are smaller so you can get closer to the surface. Another advantage is you can overlap holes with these bits. So, if you are cutting a mortise you can quickly remove the majority of material with a bit and then finish up with a chisel. Sizes of these bits range from ¼” to 5″. You can re-sharpen them yourself with the right stones and files.

Brad point bits are similar to a metal cutting bit in looks but the tip has been modified. The tip has a central point with two spurs to help cut a clean hole. They give you the smaller size range you need, 1/8″ to ½”, along with cleaner holes than you can get from standard metal cutting bits. Some carbide tip versions are available, however, there is a tendency for the spurs to break off, especially in hardwoods. The HSS bits can be easily sharpened and last well.

Auger or ship auger bits are usually 8″ or 18″, although there are some longer versions available up to 29″. They have a course single spiral, one spur and a self-feeding central screw point. They originated in the boat building industry and can have a round, hex or the old four sided taper shanks. They are designed to cut fast and move on so don’t look for smooth splinter free holes. Sizes for these bits range from ¼” to 2″.

Installer bits are long bits designed for installing cables and wires in buildings. They are a modified version of the aircraft bits with a tip, which has a better angle for wood drilling. Sizes are limited and range from 3/16″ to ¾” with lengths normally of 18″ but 12″, 24″ and even 30″ are available.

Stepped drill bits have two shaft sizes. The tip is Approximately 1/8″ in diameter and about 1″ long then it increases to 3/8″ either with a 90 or 45degree shoulder. They are great in drilling pocket holes for making mechanical joints instead of mortise & tenon, spline or biscuit joints.

Tapered bits are single spiral bits, which are tapered towards the tip to match the taper of wood screws. A screw number instead of an actual dimension is usually used in sizing these bits. For instance there will be a bit for #5 & 6 screws, another for #8 and a larger one for #10’s.

Yankee bits are small bits which have a shaft designed to lock into a Yankee or push drill. The drills have an internal spiral mechanism, which spins the bit when you push down on the handle. There are a limited number of sizes, from 1/16″ to 11/64″. They cut slowly, but are ideal for pre-drilling for small screws.

Hole saws could have been placed in metal cutting as well as they are used on steel doors but they are most appropriate under wood drilling. There are two types of hole saws. The first uses spring steel cutters, which lock into an arbor. The second has a welded steel cup design, which is threaded onto an arbor. Both designs use a ¼” drill bit to center the saw. The spring steel saws are cheap and strictly a home use item. They spring steel is very thin so they flex and can easily snap if too much pressure is placed on them. They need to be used slowly with minimal side-to-side pressure. If you are only doing one or two holes like installing a lock set okay but other wise don’t waste your money. If you want a better quality alternative but without the high price of a professional quality set get an expansion bit. The good quality hole saws and sets can be expensive but they are meant to do the job and last. They are normally bi-metal and are heat-treated. Specialized versions are also available such as carbide tipped or even diamond coated. So, depending on whether you are cutting wood, sheet metal, steel, stainless steel, plastics or stone you can find a type of hole saw to do the job. The only limitation they really have is depth of cut, because of the cup design.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is compasses, calipers & marking gauges. These handy tools can be as simple as a child’s compass, or as complicated as a rosewood & brass multi purpose, marking gauge. Whether simple or complex they are all used for the same purpose, to transfer measurements. They also do this with less error than using a ruler or tape measure and marking pieces separately. A fine point leaves a much thinner line than a pencil, which means more accuracy.

Compasses, Trammels & Calipers

Compasses can be used not only for drawing circles but also for transferring shapes & sizes as well as scribing. A simple pencil compass is very useful. They are great for marking any project where you want to round off the corners, or if you need to scribe a cupboard or counter top to a wall. In building log homes they are used to transfer the curve of the log in order to carve the saddles. If your kids are finished grade school, find their old pencil box and snitch the compass. You’ll be surprised how much you end up using it.

Trammel points are closely related to compasses. They are made up of two clamps with sharp steel points, one of which is often removable to accept a pencil. They are usually clamped to a ruler, yardstick or any piece of wood, which is the right width but can be any length. They are best for marking large radius circles or transferring a measurement. A basic use would be round tables, but they are also essential for marking out curved cabinets or furniture. An often-overlooked use is checking the diagonal measurement of boxes and drawers. You set the points to one diagonal and then compare to the opposite. If they don’t match your box is not square. This is much more accurate than using a tape measure because of trying to hold the tape to the corners evenly.

Calipers are similar in looks to a compass but instead of a pencil, they only have steel points. They normally have three different arm shapes, curved inward (outside calipers), curved outward (inside calipers), or straight (dividers). They are not used so much in marking but mainly in transferring measurements. All three are very useful in woodturning, like laying out and sizing spindles and for checking the wall thickness of bowls, plates and vases.

Marking Gauges & Bevels

Gauges and bevels can be made of plastic, wood & brass or steel. They will all do the same job but some can take more abuse and will last longer than others. The only advantage for the plastic ones, other than price, is that they will not rust if used outdoors.

Marking gauges all have the same basic structure. They have a shaft with a sliding fence and a pin or blade set at one end. The shaft may or may not be graduated and the fence clamps to the shaft usually by a knob or screw. The majority of gauges use a sharp steel pin to make the mark but some have a sharpened steel blade. The blades tend to leave a cleaner mark as they cut the fibers instead of scratch them. They can also be used to cut thin veneer or even small rabbets in softer wood. A third version has a single point on one side and a two one the other. The single point is used as a standard marking gauge, the other side is used for laying out mortises. The outside point is fixed in place and the inside one slides to adjust to the mortise width. The fence knob locks both in place when set. One thing to keep in mind with marking gauges is that the points tend to follow the grain of the wood. Make sure you run the gauge so the direction of the grain is running away from the fence.

Sliding bevels have a body of plastic, wood or steel and an aluminum or steel blade. The blade has a slot in it and attaches to the body by a lock nut or knob. The blade pivots to any angle and is excellent for transferring angles, especially from existing furniture or material. They were also traditionally used in marking dovetail angles. When buying a bevel, check that the locking mechanism secures the blade snuggly. You don’t want one, which will change angles with only slight pressure.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is sharpening and sharpening stones. This article isn’t intended to be the ultimate sharpening guide, just provide you with the basic knowledge to get started. There are excellent reference books out there written by much more knowledgeable people than me. Check them out, but more importantly, sit down, grab your knives, chisels and plane blades and sharpen.

For the majority of hand tool sharpening there are four different kinds of material; oil, water, ceramic and diamond stones. They all can give you excellent results, but they cut at different rates and need slightly different techniques. I’ve learned over the years that the best way to get really sharp edges is to sharpen often to reduce the amount you have to remove and just as importantly, to keep in practice. The more often I sharpen the better I get and the easier it becomes. Be patient and match the right angle to the blade’s use. In addition I’ll mention strops for final honing of extremely fine edges.

General information
The sequence of sharpening is the same whichever type of stones you use. Coarse to remove nicks, shaping or re-beveling, medium to re-sharpen and fine to hone the edge. Each stage is replacing deeper scratches with finer ones. That’s why a coarse stone leaves an almost frosted look to the metal, while a superfine would create a more mirror-like finish. An 8000 grit stone or stropping with leather puts a final hone on an edge removed even the finest of scratches.

Always remove any burr created by sharpening. This is an extremely thin edge of steel, which curls off the edge. If it isn’t removed it will break off and leave you with a dull blade. Final sharpening into the edge instead of away from it and honing cross the back of the blade, will also help prevent this.

When sharpening make sure you are putting the proper bevel angle on the blade. Each blade and each use has a particular angle, which works best. Keeping the bevel close to the optimum will give you the best results.

Oilstones
Oilstones have been the traditional choice for western woodworkers. They can be naturally occurring or composite materials, with oil used as a lubricating slurry. The slurry helps to improve the cutting action, plus helps prevent material from building up in the stone and causing glazing. Manufactured stones are usually divided into coarse, medium and fine grits. Natural stones are usually divided into soft and hard. Natural stones tend to cut slowly and require patience to get the best results. General-purpose stones are flat and can be 4″ to 8″ long and 1″ to 3″ wide and there are combination stones available, which have different grit sides bonded together. There are also stones for special purposes, like shaped carving slips, gardener’s stones or pucks for axes, even small stones with a groove for fish hooks.

Water Stones
These stones have been the traditional choice in Japan and over the last 20 years they have attracted a large following in the west, myself included. These stones are softer and wear more quickly than oilstones, but they cut faster. They can be natural or manufactured, but both cut and work in the same way. They are usually soaked in water before use to flood the air spaces. Water is added as needed to act as the lubricant and create the cutting slurry. Like oilstones they come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Standard flat stones, some with two grits bonded together and shaped carving slips.

Ceramic Stones
Ceramic stones normally come in various diameter rods set into a rack. The rack holds them at a 5 to 10 degree angle from vertical. This way you just run the blade downward as if you were slicing bread. Some versions have discs, instead of rods, set into a handle and you pull the knife through. The interlocking discs create the proper angle. All ceramic sharpeners are great for quickly putting an edge on a dulling blade, however they are not intended for removing nicks, taking down a shoulder or re-shaping a knife. There are also ceramic pucks out there but they are harder to find. I’ve seen these used to round freshly cut tile edges as well.

Diamond Stones
Diamond stones are fast becoming the sharpeners choice. They cut very fast even on very hard steels, you can use them dry or with water and they last much longer. Grits in diamond stones are normally coarse (~180), medium (~250), fine (~600), and superfine (1200). The key with diamond stones is making sure you get one with a flat and stable base, whether steel or plastic is used. Smaller hand held units are available, which are perfect for honing router bits, drill bits and small knives. There are also round shaft style, which are perfect for small knives, gouges or knives with the hard to sharpen serrated edges.

Strops
Stropping is a term for burnishing a steel edge with leather covered with a rubbing compound. Old-fashioned Barbershops still have a leather strop hanging from their chairs for those customers wanting a shave. They would strop the razor before starting and once or twice during the shave. This polishing removes even the finest scratches and puts an excellent finish on a blade. The drawback is that stropping, especially by hand requires a great deal of practice and a certain amount of finesse in order not to ruin all the work you did previously with the other stones. Because of the already fine edge on the blade you have to burnish away from the edge or it will bite into the leather. When learning how to strop, go slow and be methodical. Test the edge often to see how you are doing.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is squares. Along with marking and measuring gauges there have always been some form of squares. From something small enough to fit in your pocket to a large drywall square over 48″ long and 24″ wide. I’ve grouped them into five sections; Rafter, Try, Combination, Angle, Protractors & Special Purpose. This should cover the majority of squares and help you decide what you need.

Rafter-Carpenter Squares
These square are probably the most recognizable, but most underused square available. One side is 24″ long by 2″ and the other is 16″ by 1-1/2″ set at 90 degrees. This provides you with the two standard stud spacing distances as well as stud width. Dimensional markings are on both sides with 1/16″ on one side and 1/12″ and/or 1/10″ on the other. In addition to this, they are marked for octagonal scale, board measure in 1/100ths and have etched rafter tables. These tables are often over looked by most people and they can be very handy. Take the time to learn how to read them and you will be able to cut rafters without having to measure for each one. You cut one to length and then find it on the chart. It tells you the length needed at the next 16″ spacing. Metric squares are also available. There are smaller versions available with 12″ x 1-1/2″ & 8″ x 1″ arms or 8″ x 1-1/2″ & 6″ x 1″ arms, but these sizes do not have the tables and added information on them. Knurled knobs are available which help in laying out stairs.

Try Squares
These squares, like rafter squares, have two arms at 90 degrees to each other. One arm is steel or aluminum and can be 6″ to 12″ long with or without markings. The second arm or body can be of plastic, wood or metal. The body of some squares is clipped at 45 degrees so the square can be used for marking mitre joints. I prefer squares with markings as it saves a step and the body material is more an issue of durability and feel. When buying a try square there is one main thing to check and that is making sure it is 90 degrees. A quick way to do this is to set the square against an edge you flat and straight. Make a mark, then flip the square over and see if the mark will still line up. Two sub-categories of Try squares are machinist squares and speed squares. Machinist’s squares are all steel squares with no markings. Blades are hardened and machining & accuracy is of a higher grade. Sizes range from 4″ to 12″. Speed squares are a relatively new square whose popularity has really taken off. The reason they are so popular is because they are so useful. Made out of plastic or cast metal they are shaped in a triangle. One side has a raised rib, which is set against the material and you can quickly mark 90 or 45 degrees, or because of the markings, any angle in between. They come in two sizes, 7″ and 12″.

Combination Squares

These squares have a steel ruler with either a groove or slot, which the body of the square rides on. The body can be plastic or cast and is designed for 90 and 45-degree angles. Most have a level vial and a pin used for marking built into the body. Like the Try square the most important thing is accuracy. Check how well the body tightens down on the ruler and how much play there is. They are available in imperial or metric or both. Some squares come with two additional attachments. One is a compass dial/protractor head so you can mark any degree needed. The second is a center finder head set at 45 degrees to the edge of the ruler.

Angle Squares
These are squares with movable arms. One being the sliding bevel the other is often called a layout square. Readers of Hand Tool Basics #5 may remember a section on the sliding bevel under measuring gauges. I don’t know why I put them there other than it seemed a good idea at the time. Sliding bevels have a body of plastic, wood or steel and an aluminum or steel blade. The blade has a slot in it and attaches to the body by a lock nut or knob. The blade pivots to any angle and is excellent for transferring angles, especially from existing furniture or material. These squares are not normally marked but there are some, which have imperial or metric etched into the blade. They were also traditionally used in marking dovetail angles. When buying a bevel, check that the locking mechanism secures the blade snuggly. You don’t want one, which will change angles with only slight pressure. The layout square looks like a triangle of steel or aluminum and has a movable, locking arm. The arm can be set from 0 to 70 degrees. There is also a mitre square, which has a steel blade with a wooden or steel body set permanently at 45 degrees.

Protractors & Specialty Squares
Protractors combine a compass dial with straight edges. They allow you to set and mark angles and in some cases act as power tool guides. The more basic ones can be set to single degree and some of the better ones can be set to the half degree. Sizes ranges from 6″ to 20″ and material can be plastic, aluminum or steel. They are usually very reasonable priced and for myself I find it handy to have a small one and a large one to fit the size of the project. Drywall squares look like oversized drafting T-squares. They are designed specifically for cutting straight edges on a sheet of drywall. The body arm sits on top of the sheet and the 48″ measuring arm extends down the side. Some are permanently set at 90 degrees others are adjustable.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is sandpaper & abrasives. I’ve listed out the most common abrasives with definitions and their normal uses. I’ve used all of them over the years with varying results. They all have their good and bad sides. In my own woodworking I tend to rely on the ALO paper for the majority of work and the SIC wet/dry paper for final finishing. My experiments with the pumice and rottenstone showed me it would take a lot of practice to develop some finesse and achieve good results.

Garnet
A naturally occurring mineral, which up until the last 10 years has been the traditional choice of woodworkers. Not as hard or long lasting as man made abrasives. Relatively sharp, but very weak bonding structure so it wears out quickly. Very inconsistent when compared to synthetics. Used primarily in woodworking as garnet dulls too quickly to be used in metalworking. I find that garnet paper, especially the cheaper brands, leaves fine particles of grit in the wood, which is not always easy to remove afterwards.

ALO
Aluminum oxide. It has pretty much replaced Garnet as the abrasive of choice. Hard grained, long lasting and can be used on wood, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals and solid surface materials. Finer grits can be used in sharpening applications. A tough, blocky shaped, man-made grain used for high speed grinding and finishing of metals, wood, and other high tensile strength materials without excessive fracturing or shedding. Wherever the ability to resist fracturing is the main consideration, aluminum oxide will outperform all other coated abrasive grains.

Emery
Emery cloth is a strip of fabric with fine metallic or synthetic particles bonded to it. These particles are normally a variety of corundum that contains aluminum oxide set in iron oxide. Wet and dry paper is similar but the backing is a form of paper, which doesn’t fall to pieces when wet. Good for rust removal, polishing, deburring and corrosion and paint removal.

SIC waterproof
Silicon carbide. Can be used wet or dry. A very hard, very sharp, man-made abrasive suited for glass, plastic, rubber, ceramics, solid surface materials, and non-ferrous metals and for final wet sanding on wood, creating a high gloss surface. A very friable grain, silicon carbide cuts faster under light pressure than any other grain used in coated abrasives.

Alumina Zirconia
Very hard and sharp grained, which works well on stainless steel, titanium and other hard steels. Can also be used on wood. A very fine, dense, man-made crystalline grain, which can be used for aggressive stock removal. Zirconium is a very dense material with a unique self-sharpening characteristic, which gives it long life on heavy stock removal operations.

Crocus Cloth
This is a very fine grit iron-oxide coated abrasive on a cloth backing. It is used to polish after most of the work has been done with emery or aluminum oxide. Normally used only on metals.

Steel Wool
Steel wool comes in eight grits and is used for everything from removing paint and rust up to fine furniture polishing. The three coarsest grits (No’s. 2, 3 & 4) are for removing varnish, paint, rust, etc. The No.1 is can be used for applying wax and polish for hardwood and tile. O Fine – is for cleaning woodwork, painted surfaces and floors. OO Very Fine – is for metal polishing. OOO Extra Fine – is for rubbing down of paints, shellacs and varnishes before final coat. OOOO Finest – is for the final rubbing down of shellacs & varnishes.

Abrasive Grit
Raw grit is often used as a rubbing compound in conjunction with steel wool or cloth. Like the finest steel wools, it is for rubbing down before and after the final finishing coat. The most common abrasives are pumice stone and rottenstone. Pumice comes in medium and fine and rottenstone is very fine.

Fiber pads
Fiber pads are man made nylon or polyester wool, which is impregnated with grit. They are available in coarse, medium, fine and very fine. A grit free polishing pad is also available.

Abrasive Blocks
Abrasive blocks have an aluminum oxide paper bonded to either a soft foam pad or a stiffer Styrofoam block. They come in many grits and are particularly good for sanding mouldings and curved surfaces.

Closed Coat
Closed coat means the abrasive grains are adjacent to each other with no space between. The majority of applications will benefit from closed coat material because it allows for more material removal.

Open Coat
Open coat means the grains are set apart from each other, achieving a surface coverage of about 60% or more. In situations where loading is likely (soft, non- ferrous materials, painted surface, wood, etc.) open coat will resist loading and clogging and extend the useful life of the abrasive.

Stearate
An additive, which prevents the abrasive to be loaded up when sanding soft, resinous woods.

By David Fielhaber

This month’s topic is chisels & carving tools. I’ve broken them into three categories; flat or paring chisels, carving chisels and chip carving knives. There is crossover in the first two groups but for the most part there is a natural division by usage. At the end I’ll discuss basic steel types and handle shapes & materials.

Paring Chisels
When most people think of chisels, these are the ones they think of. There are two main types, bevel edge and firmer, plus a specialty chisel for mortising. Sizes normally range from 1/8” up to 2”, but there are larger chisels called slicks, which can be even wider and much longer.

Firmer chisels are where western chisels started out. They have thick solid bodies with corners at 90-degrees. These are general-purpose chisels and are meant for heavy material removal and are strong enough for any job. They are particularly good for cutting joints where you want to maintain sharp 90-degree corners. The heavier sides help prevent undercutting which means a looser, poorer fitting joint. Although these chisels are every bit as useful as they used to be, they are getting harder to find on store shelves. If you want a set you may end up having to special order or find used ones.

Bevel edged chisels used to be a specialized chisel but are now the most common, taking over from firmer chisels. Instead of the traditional 90-degree sides they have been beveled back to remove the high corners. This allows them to get into corners, dovetails and other work in cabinets and furniture where the older “firmer” chisels wouldn’t work as well. However, this feature means care has to be taken when cutting joints so you don’t inadvertently undercut the sides and create an unwanted dovetail effect and a loose joint.

Japanese chisels also fall into this category. They have the same bevel edged sides but the bodies are thinner, shorter and the backs are cupped. The shorter bodies seem to be more comfortable with two handed use, which helps with control and the cupped back reduces friction and sharpening time but it also means the useful life is shorter. The flat tip is less than ¼” long before the cupping starts, so you can only sharpen them so many times. Traditionally, when the flat tip was used up, they would be reworked flat by a blacksmith. As beautiful as these chisels are to work with and sharpen, it would be hard to find someone who could rework them properly and not ruin them.

Mortise chisels are similar to firmer chisels, but only at a quick glance. They are actually thicker plus the sides are slightly tapered. The thicker body means they have the strength and stiffer angle to lever wood away and the tapered sides mean they will not jam when cutting a mortise. Because they are heavier and stronger they are also suitable for heavy rough work. There is also a sub type called goose-neck, which are used to clean up the bottom of a mortise after it has been cut.

Carving Chisels
Carving tools come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. They can be flat, skewed, gouge, V-groove or veiner, plus the shaft can be either straight, bent, spoon or dovetail. Once you add in the different widths and sizes you can get an amazing array or tools to carve any shape. Sizes can range from the micro tools of 1/16” through the standard sizes up to large sculpting tools of 2”.

The flat chisels tend to be thinner than paring chisels with much finer edges. They can be beveled and sharpened on both sides or just on one side. They also come in skew styles so you can get into very tight corners, backgrounds or recesses with the tip. Skews are normally ground to about 23-degrees.

Gouges have a curved blade and can be used to carve concave or convex shapes. Standard gouges have the bevel on the outside but they can be used for both concave and convex work. There are also specialized gouges which have the bevel on the inside designed specifically for convex work. Gouges are the workhorse of any carving set and are used in all carving, from furniture, relief work and sculpture. It pays to learn how to sharpen them and keep in practice. The curve can be very shallow, barely different from a flat chisel up to a full radius. The higher the number of the gouge the greater it’s curvature.

V-groove or parting tools are, as the name implies, V shaped. The V can range from a tight 60-degrees to a looser 120-degrees with the most common being 90-degrees. They are often used for outlining, lettering, cleaning up corners or in sculpture to create the effect of hair or fabric folds.

A Veining gouge has a deep U shape, normally small, which is often used in lettering and fluting work in furniture. They can also be used in relief and sculpture.

The different shafts for these gouges allow you to do slightly different things. The bent shaft has a curve to most of the shaft length, while the spoon gouge has a tighter curve only at the last 1/3 to ½ of the shaft. Both are for use in rounded shapes like bowl carving or where you are trying to cut deeper hollows in relief or sculpture. Gouges with dovetail ends have narrow shaft with the blade edge fanning out. This lets you get into tighter areas especially when doing relief work because the narrower shaft does not interfere with your cut as much.

Chip Carving
This type of carving is much more geometric than free form sculpture. Because of this you need a different style of knives. The blades are shorter and wider and there are no gouges or V-grooves used. These blades are designed for plunge or draw cuts especially in soft woods, but can also be used in hardwoods. There are three main blade types with some variations of each with some sets having as many as 12 or 15 knives. The three basic knives are the general purpose, paring and stab.

The general-purpose knife uses a traditional blade shape from ¾” to 2” long and is sharpened on the rounded side with the back straight and unsharpened. These knives are mainly used for shaping and removing stock quickly. Variations of this knife are having the blade tipped forward at an angle, having a spear tip or having the back sharpened as well.

The paring knives have an unsharpened curved back and the cutting edge is straight. This shape allows you to cut precise grooves and edges as you make draw cuts. They are also excellent for cutting curves because of the control you have on the blade. Variations are similar to the general purpose, blade length, blade taper and blade angle.

Stab knives have a wide flat blade sharpened at a slight angle. As the name implies they are used to make plunge cuts with no drawing. The angled edge allows you to take out a triangular chip or by pushing it in straight you can remove a rectangular chip. Normally these blades are only sharpened on one side (single bevel), but they can be double beveled as well. Other variations are; blade angle, blade width and some have a slight curve.

Steel
The quality of steel used in carving affects you in three ways; how they hold an edge, how easy they are to sharpen and how much they cost. The softer the steel, the easier they are to sharpen but the faster they will get dull and vise versa. There are many steel alloys and mixtures trying to balance hardness against brittleness with ease of sharpening. The cheaper chisels & carving tools use the softer carbon steel and heat treat just the edge to improve the durability. The more expensive tools use the complex alloys to provide as hard an edge as possible but still make them not too brittle and sharpenable without diamond equipment. They will harden and heat-treat most of the blade and shaft. Some individual tools can cost much more than an entire set, which gives you an idea of the difference in quality. Most good chisels and carving tools will be between Rc58 to 62 on the Rockwell scale, with Japanese tools being at the top end starting at Rc60. The higher the number the harder it is and the easier it is to chip.

If you only will use a chisel or carving tool the odd time there is no reason to spend a fortune. If you will be using it often or perhaps carving exclusively, buy the best you can afford. Like all tool purchases, base it on how much you will use it and what you expect of it.

Handles
For the most part, chisels and carving tools come in either plastic or wood and shapes are as many as there are manufacturers. For basic chisels you want a handle, which can stand up to use with a hammer. The best are the split proof high tech plastic ones. These are the chisels the professionals use because they don’t have time to grab a mallet and use a claw hammer instead. The handles get misshapen over time but they will last the life of the blade. The basic plastic ones and wooden handles without ferrules should only be used with a mallet or infrequently with a claw hammer. Repeated use with a hammer will eventually split the handle. The wooden ones with steel or brass ferrules are designed mainly for mallet use but will stand up for a time with a hammer. With chisel handles I prefer the ones, which are not quite round, either squared or octagon in profile. I like them not so much for comfort, but because they don’t roll off my bench when I set them down. I do have some with round handles and seeing them drop to the cement floor blade first gives me a pain in the stomach.

Carving tool handles are almost always wood and normally two different shapes. There are long handled and palm handled. Long handles are traditional chisel handles approximately ¾” to 1” in diameter and 4” to 6” long. Palm handles are much shorter and have a larger diameter, usually about 1-1/4” to 1-1/2” in diameter and 2” to 3” long. The palm handle lets you get your fingers closer to the tip of the tool, increasing control, which helps in fine detailed work. My own preference is to have smaller, detail carving tools with palm handles and the larger carving tools with long handles so I can get a good grip. You tend to spend much more time carving than just using a chisel so choose handles, which feel comfortable to you. All palm handled and some long handled carving tools are not made for mallet use. If you are planning to use a mallet make sure your tool can withstand the impact.

Basic Starter Kit
For a basic starter set I recommend one of the smaller to medium profile 6pc sets on the market. They have enough variety for those who only want to have a set for the odd project or are the perfect middle range tools for those who want to do some serious carving. The set would have a couple of straight blades, a skew, two sizes of gouges and a v-groove. They should be no wider than 3/8”. This size lets you do most detail work plus some larger carvings. In addition I would add a paring knife for stock removal. There are also some carving sets, which come with one handle and replaceable blades. There is nothing wrong with these sets and they have the advantage of being compact enough to take with you. Just be aware that the cheaper versions do not have a strong jaw and clamping system. Final word is to keep them sharp. Not only will this save you frustration, give cleaner cuts but reduce the chance of stabbing yourself in the hand. You have to push harder with a dull tool, which increases the chance of it slipping. I know this from experience and have the scars to prove it.

By Ken Untershultz

To get the best out of your bandsaw one must start with a properly adjusted blade, guide blocks, thrust bearings and a squared up table.  It is very important to check each of these factors every time you use your saw, change your blade, or when your blade and blocks show some wear.  A properly adjusted bandsaw is a delight to use.  However, if improperly adjusted, it can be a major frustration.

There are five simple steps one must perform in sequence, to assure a properly tuned bandsaw.

1. Tension the Blade
   To do this, you use the “blade tightening” knob that protrudes above the case of the top blade wheel.  Some saws have indications for different blade widths.  These are merely approximate indicators, so start by moderately tightening the blade, which has been placed on the wheels.
2. Tracking the Blade
   Before you start to plug in the machine, make sure the guide blocks and thrust bearings are totally clear of the blade.  Rotate the blade wheels by hand.  CAUTION:  Don’t place your finger through the spokes of the wheel.  You could severely damage or lose a finger.  As it is rotated, the blade should move to the center of the rubber tire on the top and hopefully the bottom wheels.  If the blade does not seem to center, you have to adjust the “top wheel tilt knob” while you hand-turn the wheel.  Turn the wheel until you get it tracking on the center of the rubber tires or as close as possible.  You may need a bit more tension on the blade, but don’t overly compress the rubber tires.
3. Adjusting the Guide Blocks/Pins
   Move the top guide blocks/pins back or forward so the front edges will be right behind the blade teeth.  Take a piece of paper the size of a $5.00 bill and fold it from the back around the saw blade.  Move the blade and bank note between the guides/pins and without deflecting the blade, tighten the guides/pins to a nice fit around the paper. Do the same for the bottom guide/pins.
4. Position the Thrust Bearings
   Move the top thrust bearing until it is almost touching the blade.  It need not roll when you hand-turn the blade, but should roll when you cut wood.  Do the same for the bottom bearing. You should now have your blade, guides, and thrust bearings tuned for accurate sawing.
5. Square the Table
   The final step is to set the table 90 degrees to the blade. Place a small square (4″ to 6″) on the table against the blade.  At the back, bottom of the table, there should be an adjusting bolt allowing you to change the angle of the table. Turn the bolt until the square shows the blade and table are 90 degrees to each other.

NOTE: Each time you change the blade, you should go through steps 1 through 5.

When you have finished working with your bandsaw, and will not be using it for a while, release the blade tension. There is no sense in creating a flat side on your rubber tires.

CONGRATULATIONS!  YOU HAVE TUNED AND ADJUSTED YOUR BANDSAW AND SHOULD NOW EXPERIENCE MORE “BANDSAWING SUCCESS.” HAVE FUN!

“Ken the Tool Guy”